European fan palm (Chamaerops humilis) is one of only two palms native to Europe, its native range extending from southern Spain down into North Africa and over to Italy. It is very drought tolerant once established and can take temperatures briefly as low as 10 degrees Fahrenheit. It is a shrub like, clumping palm, but it can be trained to a single trunk by removing any suckers that arise from its base. It is slow growing and rarely gets above 10 feet tall. It is considered hardy to USDA zone 8, which includes most of coastal Virginia, but some protection is recommended the farther north and west you garden.

Needle palm (Rhapidophyllum hystrix) is one of the most cold-tolerant palms, able to withstand temperatures as low as zero for short periods. Native to the coastal margins of the southeastern United States, it is considered hardy all the way to USDA 6b, but some intrepid gardeners have successfully grown it in zone 5b. It gets its common name from the 6-inch, needle-like spines produced at the base of its leaf stalks. This is a trunkless palm with a mature size of 3 to 6 feet tall and 4 to 8 feet wide, functioning more as an evergreen shrub in the landscape. Its bold foliage makes it a great foundation plant or textural accent in part shade, especially in winter.

Dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor) comes closest to being native for us, growing from northeastern North Carolina to Texas. It is also very cold tolerant, down to zero. Although it is shrubby, its large, bold foliage clearly lets you know that this plant is indeed a palm. It typically reaches about 6 feet tall and wide (or more), and its tough constitution makes it easy to grow in sun to part shade, wet or dry soil.

Cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto) is the state tree of South Carolina and Florida. The taller sibling to the dwarf palmetto, it gets 20 to 30 feet high (or more) with a well-defined trunk. Sabal palmetto is native to the United States from southern North Carolina to Florida. Although it is considered hardy to zone 8a and can take temperatures as low as 15, many cabbage palms have not survived our colder winters, frustrating many palm enthusiasts.

Windmill palm (Trachycarpus fortunei) is one of the most common hardy palms, capable of withstanding winters in USDA zone 7 or higher, making it a great choice for coastal Virginia. Its exact native range is unknown because it has been cultivated for centuries in China and Japan for its coarse and strong leaf fiber, but it is believed to be native to central and eastern China and southern Japan. Windmill palm has a compact crown, fitting for smaller gardens, and a mature height of 20 to 40 feet. It has a well-defined trunk, good for gardeners who want a more treelike palm.

Even in the colder climate of coastal Virginia, gardeners can enjoy the tropical flair that hardy palms can bring to the landscape. A warm breeze rustling through bold foliage might just transport you to someplace more exotic.

Wild Green Yonder is a monthly feature from the staff at Norfolk Botanical Garden, where Michelle Baudanza is the Perry Conservatory curator. Gardening questions can be sent to askaplantquestion@nbgs.org.

Most people know about the benefits of houseplants’ beauty and ability to clean the air. But they bring many other benefits, too, studies show.

Reduced pain, increased health: A 2013 Norwegian study of the effects of indoor plants on office workers showed a significant reduction in the frequency of headaches, cough and fatigue compared to offices without plants. Many studies by environmental psychologist Roger Ulrich have shown that views of outdoors greenery through hospital windows may reduce patients’ recovery time and need for pain medication. While the hospital studies didn’t use houseplants specifically, other studies have shown that houseplants would likely create similar results.

Better concentration: Several studies have shown students’ grade point average increases when houseplants are present in the classroom or when students can see trees from classroom windows. Notably, a 2010 Australian study showed a significant increase in math and science scores on standardized tests for middle schoolers when houseplants were in the classroom.  A 2011 study published in the Journal of Environmental Psychology showed a significant increase in attention span on a reading comprehension test for a group whose test room had houseplants.

More creativity: A 2012 study in the Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin showed in four different experiments that having participants look at the color green before working on a creativity assignment greatly increased their score compared to the control groups’. Creativity likely rises in the presence of houseplants because they reduce stress and elevate our mood, which lets us better focus on the task at hand. In short, houseplants create a more comfortable and beautiful environment.

Reduced cortisol levels: Houseplant enthusiasts already know that caring for their plants is truly a labor of love. But caring for plants also reduces both psychological and physiological stress. Gardening in all forms, whether indoors or out, helps us to be more present in the moment. This results in feelings of comfort, reduced stress and reduced levels of cortisol, a hormone that helps regulate the body’s response to stress. (Chronic stress can raise cortisol, which can harm health.) Caring for plants can also remind us to properly care for ourselves as well.

If you are ready to start enjoying the mental and physical benefits of houseplants but are new to them, the following are well-suited to beginners. They’re also pet friendly, but people should still keep plants out of reach of pets who nibble things they shouldn’t.

• Spider plants (Chlorophytum comosum) are among the most popular houseplants of all time, and for good reason: They enjoy being rootbound and are quite drought-tolerant and adaptable.
• Haworthia, such as the zebra plant, is a tough succulent that thrives with infrequent watering and bright light.
• Snake plants (Dracaena, formerly Sansevieria) and ZZ plants (Zamioculcas) are good for areas with low light.

Whichever you choose, you’ll soon be on your way to a new hobby, one that we hope will bring tranquil feelings and renewed focus.

Wild Green Yonder is a recurring monthly feature from the staff of Norfolk Botanical Garden, where Michelle Baudanza is curator of herbaceous plants. Send gardening questions to askaplantquestion@nbgs.org.

The giant Amazon water lily’s flowers (Victoria amazonica) live for just two days, but during that time it imprisons its pollinators and changes sex to ensure proliferation of the species. On the first evening that the flower blooms it is female and white. The flower releases a fragrance that smells like pineapple, and it also releases heat, both of which attract beetles into the center. The bloom can be as much as 50 degrees Fahrenheit more than the surrounding air temperature! Once the beetles are lured in, the flower closes in the morning, trapping the beetles inside. The flower then becomes male, turns pink, and covers the trapped beetles in pollen. Once released the insects deliver the pollen to the stigma of another female flower.

Holcoglossum amesianum is an amazing self-pollinating orchid native to China. Instead of relying on wind, insects, or mammals to distribute pollen, this clever orchid takes matters into its own hands. It has evolved the ability to rotate its pollen-filled anther completely backward and insert it into the female part of the plant, called the stigma. It is the only known flower capable of this feat. This tactic is thought to have evolved because the orchids flower from February to April in the dry and windless area of Yunnan province in China.

In 2011, an observant handyman in rural northeast Brazil discovered a new species in the Spigelia genus. Spigelia genuflexa, a distant cousin of the North American Indian pink, bends its seed down to the ground and pushes through the soil to plant them, a rare phenomenon known as geocarpy. It is thought that because this plant is short-lived and exists in small fragments of suitable habitat in coastal Brazil, this adaptation allows the mother plant to be successful by depositing seed next to herself rather than trying to disperse the seed into potentially unsuitable environments.

Some plants however employ a tactic quite the opposite of the diminutive Spigelia. Plants like Ecballium elaterium, commonly known as the squirting cucumber, employ a method known as ballistic seed dispersal to spread seed to other areas. As the fruit of this plant reaches maturity, the surrounding tissue begins to break down creating mucilaginous liquid. This liquid begins building immense internal pressure inside the fruit, which has been measured up to 27 times higher than atmospheric air pressure at sea level. Once the fruit can no longer contain the seed, it bursts launching all the seed inside up to 20 feet away from the parent plant.

Wild Green Yonder is a recurring monthly feature from the staff of the Norfolk Botanical Garden. Michelle Baudanza is the curator of herbaceous plants.

Forcing bulbs tricks them into thinking spring has arrived. Doing so allows the enjoyment of their beauty indoors during a time of year when it can seem as though spring will never arrive. And, it is easy.

Bulbs can be divided into two categories; those that require chilling before they will bloom, and those that do not. The easiest bulbs, primarily native to warm climates, do not require chilling and simply have to planted and watered, like amaryllis and paperwhites.

Bulbs that need pre-chilling require an additional step but are still easy to force to bloom indoors. Pre-chilling can be accomplished by storing bulbs in a refrigerator for the required amount of time. Just be sure no fresh fruit is stored in the refrigerator because the ethylene gas some fruits naturally emit interferes with bulbs. Storage in the refrigerator mimics the dormant period bulbs would experience in their native environment. This chill period is required before they are ready to grow. Some common varieties of bulbs that require chilling are hyacinths, tulips, crocus, most daffodils and muscari. In order to have blooms during a specifically desired time of the year, simply check the chill period — 13 weeks for hyacinths for example — and count backward from the desired date of bloom. Fortunately, many garden centers and online sellers now offer pre-chilled bulbs.

Once they have experienced the correct chill period, either in your refrigerator or at the bulb company, hyacinths only take two to three weeks to bloom after planting, They will fill your home with sweet perfume. Paperwhites (members of the daffodil family) take four to six weeks to bloom after planting, and they too are very fragrant, perhaps a bit too fragrant for some tastes. Amaryllis can take eight to 10 weeks to bloom, and although they are not fragrant, they make up for it with very large, showy flowers.

After the blooms have faded, many bulbs can either be stored for forcing again the following year or planted outdoors. For amaryllis, cut off the flower stalk as it starts to wilt to prevent it from forming seeds, thus forcing more energy into the bulb instead. Move the pot to a window where it will receive sunlight for most of the day, and let the soil dry out between watering. Amaryllis do not like to be overwatered and like to be grown in a small pot, just about an inch larger than the diameter of the bulb. Stop watering amaryllis completely 12 to 14 weeks before the desired bloom time, and store in a cool area to allow the bulb a dormant period of about eight weeks. After this time it can be brought indoors and watered where it will show new growth within one to two weeks. Amaryllis can also be grown outdoors in coastal Virginia.

Paperwhites can be left in their pot for storage. Once the foliage browns completely after bloom simply turn the pot on its side and store in a cool dark place, such as an unheated garage or basement. In the fall, turn the pot upright and return it to a sunny location and resume watering. Alternatively, plant them in the garden in a mostly sunny location with good drainage, and they will bloom for years to come.

Similarly with hyacinths, remove spent flowers, and allow the foliage to brown and the pot to go dry. Remove the bulbs from their container and store in a breathable mesh or paper bag in the refrigerator for at least 13 weeks. Alternatively, select a spot in the garden with rich soil, good drainage and lots of sun. Plant outdoors in the fall, in holes 4 inches deep and approximately 3 inches apart. Be sure to wear gloves when handling hyacinth bulbs because they can irritate skin.

Be aware also that a hyacinth’s flower quality tends to diminish after the initial planting, so don’t be surprised if flower quality is reduced in subsequent years. For this reason many use hyacinths for seasonal color only.

Happy gardening.

Michelle Baudanza is curator of herbaceous plants at Norfolk Botanical Garden.

Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary field that combines botany, history and ethnology (the study of different human groups and how they interact). It investigates the traditional knowledge and customs of people in regard to plants and their many uses. It takes the study of botany further by including the human element, how the plants are grown and what are its practical uses. Ethnobotany is important in areas of environmental conservation, pharmaceutical development, socioeconomic development, and documentation of local customs just to name a few.

Cane (Arundinaria species) was one of the most important plants for Native Americans in the Southeast, providing shelter, food, medicine, tools, weapons, musical instruments and livestock forage. Dense stands of cane are known as canebrakes, and once made up large ecosystems from Maryland to Texas. Canebrakes have nearly disappeared due to over-grazing by livestock, fire suppression and land clearing, and it is now considered a critically endangered ecosystem. Cane is also a critical habitat for several animal species, and its loss was likely a contributing factor to the presumed extinction of the Bachman’s warbler, last seen in 1988.

Because cane was once so prolific and grew rapidly, Native Americans found it an excellent raw material for all types of dwellings. Cane has a high load-bearing capacity, is water resistant, and is lightweight. These dwellings could persist up to 20 years without needing repair. Cane was even used to construct defensive fortifications and was highly effective in deflecting projectiles as well as concealing movement. Experimentation in World War II found it was superior in some instances to concrete in deflecting bullets and shrapnel because it did not shatter.

Similar to the lost habitat of cane, longleaf pines (Pinus palustris) once made up the largest ecosystem in North America at approximately 90 million acres. Today, there are less than 5 million acres. Longleaf pine forests include many rare plant and animal species, some of which are only found there. The endangered red-cockaded woodpecker, eastern indigo snake and gopher tortoise all call longleaf pine ecosystems home.

Native Americans utilized the longleaf pine in several ways, including the crafting of coiled pine straw baskets, resin as sealer for hides, logs for timber and kindling, and needles and bark for medicinal purposes. Longleaf pines need fire to thrive, and the Native Americans managed these ecosystems by setting fires every two to four years. These managed ecosystems also had an abundance of wildlife, which made it easier to hunt. Because longleaf pines are long lived, the Cherokee believed they have eternal lives, and thus pine was utilized to purify the home where a death occurred by burning branches in a cooking vessel.

Yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria) is the only known plant, indigenous to North America, which contains caffeine. It is a close relative of the popular yerba mate, but unfortunately is rarely consumed in modern times, despite being similar in taste and locally obtained. The botanical name is a misnomer, once thought to induce vomiting due to its use in Native American purging ceremonies. Early settlers who witnessed these ceremonies thought the yaupon holly was to blame, but the ceremonial beverage was a concoction of several ingredients. The beverage was so widely consumed that researchers have recently determined it made its way as far west as the lost city of Cahokia near present day St. Louis, far outside of its native range.

As our natural resources decline so does biodiversity, and our traditional knowledge of plants. Medicinal plant knowledge is particularly vulnerable to loss with globalization. While there are advantages and conveniences to modern day medicines and goods, many of us have lost a connection to our natural world. Some of our ancestors’ use of native plants was accumulated over thousands of years, and if ethnobotanists can record this knowledge before it is too late, we could combine this wisdom with current technology benefiting humanity.

Michelle Baudanza is the Curator of Herbaceous Plants at Norfolk Botanical Garden

Wild Green Yonder is a recurring monthly feature from the staff of the Norfolk Botanical Garden.

Provided a few guidelines are followed, hostas are long-lived powerhouses for the shade garden. Although they are adaptable and forgiving once established, they perform best with consistent moisture in well-drained, slightly acidic soil. They need about 1 inch of water per week, either from rain or irrigation, and 2 inches of a good organic mulch will help to retain that moisture. Hostas will have the best color development with some light, so do not plant them in deep shade. Morning sun with afternoon shade or high dappled shade is best.

Do not provide supplemental water once they go dormant for the winter, or before the last frost date in spring, as this could lead to root rot. Fertilize in early spring once the leaves have emerged. Fertilizer is particularly helpful for optimal growth of gold-leaved varieties as they do not have as many chloroplasts (the part of plant cells responsible for photosynthesis). Hostas benefit from dividing every few years, and center-clump dieback is a sign your plant is overdue for division. Fall is the optimal time to make divisions, although it can be done successfully at other times of the year as well.

Gardeners are not the only ones who love hostas. They are eaten by deer, rabbits, voles and slugs, but actions can be taken to help minimize casualties. Slugs like damp and decaying debris, so cleaning up and removing dead leaves, as well as not overwatering will help reduce these slimy pests. If possible, water with drip hoses instead by overhead irrigation. If this is not possible, water in the early morning so the area is not wet overnight. If slug damage still occurs, natural controls such as diatomaceous earth, or baits with iron phosphate can be used. Thinning surrounding plants to increase air circulation can also help.

The likelihood of deer and rabbit damage can be reduced with repellents, which are available at most home and garden stores. Be sure to reapply these after a heavy rain, and use gloves during application so that smell doesn’t linger on your hands.

Barriers such as fencing, netting and motion-activated sprinklers can also be effective. Vole damage is trickier since they feed underground, and often their activity is not discovered until the plant is already dead. Hostas can be planted in wire cages to prevent vole damage while still allowing for proper drainage. Surrounding the root ball with sharp gravel can also help. Above ground, hostas grow very well in containers for those with vole issues, limited space or as a design element.

While hostas can certainly be stars of the shade garden solo, they are even more stunning with companions that thrive in similar growing conditions. Dear friends include columbines, hellebores, sedges, coral bells and lungworts. Bonus points are given for striking color combinations such as purple Iris cristata paired with a variegated hosta such as Tambourine or Valentine bleeding hearts intermingled with the blue-leafed Hosta sieboldiana Elegans.

Many hostas even provide fragrant flowers such as hosta So Sweet.

Happy gardening.

Michelle Baudanza is the curator of herbaceous plants at Norfolk Botanical Garden.